The Latin phrase from Plautus' play Asinaria, "homo homini lupus", meaning "man is not a man, but a wolf, to a stranger", conveys the idea that humans can be aggressive, hostile and destructive towards each other. It reflects the darker aspects of human nature, suggesting that men have the potential to harm and exploit each other.
A wolf in wolf's clothing?
This proverb is often used to express the idea that people can act selfishly or cruelly when they are guided by their personal interests, disregarding the well-being of others. It reminds us of the complexities and sometimes harsh realities of human behavior and relationships. If we look at paranoia, we see that it involves a heightened sense of suspicion and fear of others, driven by the belief that they pose a threat or harbor malicious intentions. This fits with the idea that humans can be wolves to each other, suggesting that people suffering from paranoia may view others as potential predators or sources of harm. Paranoia can be rooted in a deep distrust of others and the perception of a hostile world, which can lead an individual to believe they are constantly under threat. He may view others as potential “wolves” who seek to deceive or harm him, leading to a heightened state of vigilance and distrust.
Paranoia is as old as the world
Paranoia is a psychological state characterized by excessive mistrust and suspicion of others. If the concept of paranoia has always been present, its understanding and classification have evolved. The term "paranoia" itself was introduced by the ancient Greeks and initially referred to a general state of madness or irrationality. At the end of the 19th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin refined the concept and differentiated paranoia from other mental disorders by defining it as a chronic and progressive state mainly characterized by delusions of grandeur or persecution. At the beginning of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, gave his views on paranoia. Freud believed that underlying unconscious conflicts and unresolved childhood experiences played an important role in the development of paranoid delusions. In modern psychiatric classification systems, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), paranoia is no longer considered a disorder in its own right. Rather, it is typically classified as a symptom or feature of various pathologies, such as paranoid personality disorder or paranoid schizophrenia. In modern psychiatry, paranoia is considered a complex psychological phenomenon influenced by a combination of genetic, neurobiological and environmental factors. Therapeutic approaches usually involve a combination of therapy and medication, tailored to the underlying condition causing the paranoia.
evolution
Paranoia, broadly defined, can be seen as related to human survival mechanisms, in that it involves heightened vigilance and distrust of potential threats. From an evolutionary perspective, being hypervigilant and wary of potential dangers in the environment may have provided a survival advantage by increasing the chances of detecting and responding to threats. However, it is important to note that while paranoia in some contexts may have adaptive elements, excessive or unfounded paranoia may be maladaptive and interfere with daily functioning. Exaggerated suspicion and distrust can strain relationships, harm social interactions, and lead to unnecessary anxiety and distress.
A common tendency in men
Throughout history, human beings have engaged in wars and conflicts, causing damage, destruction and suffering to each other, illustrating how human beings can act in aggressive and harmful ways towards their fellows. Instances of criminality, violence and exploitation can also lead to ever-growing paranoid states. Traumatic events for which people seek help include various forms of assault, theft, fraud or abuse. In the professional and social context, individuals are often confronted with aggressive or abusive behavior towards them, particularly in cases of bullying. These behaviors often manifest themselves at school, in the workplace, or on online platforms, where individuals exercise their power and harm others. Cases of betrayal and deception in intimate relationships cause great mistrust and people feel exploited, which leads to the development of a paranoid state. Betrayal can consist of lying, deceiving, or breaking promises, which results in emotional distress and harm to the patient. Systems or structures that perpetuate inequality, discrimination or oppression can be seen as examples of humans acting like wolves to each other and are well documented. These include instances of racial, sexual, or economic inequality, where some individuals exploit or abuse others based on their perceived differences.
Book an in-office consultation in Paris Montorgueuil or remotely by videoconference
We receive our patients from Monday to Friday.
To make an appointment you can call us on +33 (0) 1 48 07 40 40
or +33 (0) 6 03 24 81 65 or even make it directly online
by clicking here:
The believing brain
The brain plays a vital and strategic role in keeping us safe. It contributes to this through sensory perception, threat detection, risk assessment, reflexes and instincts, and learning through experience. These functions allow us to recognize and respond to potential hazards, make informed decisions to ensure our well-being, and adapt our behavior to avoid injury. In his marvelous book, The Believing Brain, eminent science writer and skeptic Michael Shermer (2009) dwelled extensively on beliefs and human behavior. Shermer emphasizes the role of belief systems and how they shape human behavior. He claims that people often form beliefs based on cognitive biases, emotional attachments, and social influences rather than purely rational thinking. This can lead individuals to cling to beliefs that may not correspond to objective evidence or reality. In the context of human interactions, Shermer explains how beliefs can influence our perception of others and our interactions with them. Beliefs can form the basis of stereotypes, prejudices and biases, leading to conflict and division between people. It encourages critical thinking, skepticism and open-mindedness as ways to overcome these limitations and promote more constructive and harmonious interactions. Shermer also emphasizes the importance of evidence-based reasoning and the scientific method in evaluating beliefs, in order to minimize the potential harms that can arise from unfounded or harmful beliefs.
Self-esteem
Self-esteem can play a role in experiencing and dealing with paranoia. People with low self-esteem may be more prone to having paranoid thoughts and beliefs. When a person has a negative self-image, they are more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as evidence of personal threats or persecution. Low self-esteem can contribute to an increased sensitivity to social cues and a tendency to perceive others as hostile or critical. Paranoia can be closely linked to social interactions and the fear of negative evaluation by others. Low self-esteem can intensify social anxiety and increase the likelihood of perceiving others as judges or hostiles. This can contribute to paranoid thoughts and beliefs about being viewed negatively or targeted by others. People with low self-esteem may exhibit higher levels of rejection sensitivity, that is, a tendency to perceive rejection or criticism in ambiguous or neutral situations. This hypersensitivity can amplify paranoid thoughts and lead to the belief that others are intentionally trying to hurt or exclude them. This impacts coping strategies when faced with paranoid thoughts or situations. Some people have less confidence in their abilities to handle social interactions or perceived threats, which can contribute to heightened anxiety and exacerbate their paranoid beliefs. Managing self-esteem can be beneficial in dealing with paranoia. Developing good self-esteem can go through techniques such as challenging negative beliefs, developing self-compassion, and developing positive self-talk (see previous article).
Persecution
Paranoia can be aggravated by a feeling of persecution, that is to say the conviction of being spied on, persecuted or to be the object of conspiracies, as well as by the fear of being poisoned. These patients most often fear being the victims of an action aimed directly at harming them. Persecution is distinguished from pure paranoia by the belief that others have malicious intentions, that they are deliberately plotting against the person himself. This belief even leads to the unfounded and irrational fear of being followed by someone and being discovered at any time.
The construction of the prison
In the context of strategic problem solving theory, a "solution attempt" refers to the strategies or actions that individuals employ to solve a problem or meet a challenge they face. These solution attempts are the individual's first attempts to solve or cope with the problem, based on their beliefs, behaviors and resources. Often, individuals get bogged down in these ineffective or unproductive attempts at solutions, leading to the perpetuation or exacerbation of the problem. These attempted solutions may include rigid or repetitive patterns of thinking, behavior, or relating to others.
Change and treatment
The role of therapists using our approach is to help individuals identify and examine their attempted solutions, and to help them explore new and more appropriate approaches to problem solving. By challenging ineffective patterns and facilitating the exploration of alternative solutions, therapists aim to help individuals move out of the cycle of failed attempts and find more effective strategies to meet their challenges. The attempts at solutions identified below are often repeated in the case of paranoia.
The suspicion that becomes a certainty
At first, the person will try to control his external reality. To defend themselves from an attack that they often feel is constant, the paranoid person tries to control everything and everyone. This attempt to control causes others to perceive them as distrustful and the reactions of others imply a discreet feeling of unease in their presence and, in turn, distrust is also generated in the paranoid person, which gradually feeds their beliefs. . This attempt at control turns into a concrete trigger for this vicious circle that feeds the disorder. I have suspicions about others and I will try to control them, but this leads others to suspect me". Eventually, what is observed is a confirmation that their doubts were correct to begin with, leads them to behave even more suspiciously towards each other.
Create something from nothing
In a typical situation, the person continually seeks to confirm his suspicions, which leads him to doubt everything and everyone, and therefore to constantly live in doubt. On the one hand, family and friends try to reason with her to rationally explain the strangeness of her behaviors and, on the other hand, the patient begins to think, suspiciously, "If you don't understand me, then in my mind, that means you are against me". To escape this situation, the person will begin to interpret, often in a very rigid way, all the information that surrounds him in a negative way. In each situation, she focuses on the scrupulous search for all the elements that can confirm her paranoid thesis: "If you ask me something, it's not because you have good intentions, but because you want to upset me. ".
Family involvement
We have observed clinically that people suffering from paranoia can, in some cases, actively involve their family members, directly or indirectly. If they adhere to the patient's belief, it is reinforced; if, on the other hand, family and friends show hesitation, they may receive outbursts of anger from the patient, which has the effect of keeping the disorder in a state of imprisonment. Everyone participates in finding the solution, but ends up participating in the problem.
Our strategic intervention
The primary modes of strategic intervention for paranoia and persecutory paranoia differ depending on how the problem works, in the individual case. The goal of therapy is to fracture and then dismantle the person's dysfunctional belief. As always on the strategic level, we must study the structure of the problem, which will determine the type of solution and communication that we will have to use. The structure of the problem is the way in which it was formed, how it persists and is maintained. The structure of the solution, on the other hand, is adapted during the therapy according to what works when we begin to work with the person and their family. By taking this scientific approach, at the end of the therapy, if it is successful, we will also know if we have understood the disorder correctly, which will allow us to deepen our knowledge of these problems.
Remember that the difference between health and pathology is the difference in "quantity". Similar mechanisms, but in different doses, create different realities; if distrust and skepticism is something that happens to all of us and is often useful, living, while being constantly on the alert, is something that borders strongly on the pathological and that makes life the person a real hell. While a certain level of caution and vigilance is important for self-preservation, an extreme or persistent state of paranoia can be detrimental to overall well-being. It should be emphasized that the evolutionary significance of paranoia is a subject of ongoing scientific research and debate. The manifestation and impact of paranoia can vary greatly from individual to individual, and its precise relationship to survival mechanisms and other factors is still being explored by researchers in the field of psychology and neuroscience. .
Bibliography
1. Fisch, R., Weakland, JH, & Segal, L. (1982). The tactics of change: Doing therapy briefly. Jossey Bass.
2. Freeman, D. and Garety, PA (2000). Comments on the content of delusions of persecution: Does the definition need clarification? British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39(4), 407-414.
3. Freeman, D., Dunn, G., Startup, H., Pugh, K., Cordwell, J., Mander, H., ... & Wingham, G. (2015). The effects of improving sleep on mental health (OASIS): a randomized controlled trial with mediation analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(4), 356-366.
4. Freeman, D. and Garety, PA (2004). Paranoia: The psychology of persecutory delusions. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.
5. Freeman, D. and Garety, PA (2014). Progress in understanding and treating delusions of persecution: A review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(8), 1179-1189.
6. Gibson, P. (2021). The 12 most common mental traps. Strategic Science Books.
7. Green, CE, Freeman, D., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P., Fowler, D., Dunn, G. & Garety, P. (2008). Measuring ideas of persecution and social reference: The Green et al. Paranoid Thought Scales (GPTS). Psychological Medicine, 38(1), 101-111.
8. Moritz, S. and Woodward, TS (2006). Metacognitive training in schizophrenia: From basic research to knowledge translation and intervention. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19(6), 619-625.
9. Muriana, E., Verbitz, T. (2017), Se sei paranoico, non sei mai solo! Dalla diffidenza al delirio paranoico.
10. Alps, Rome.
11. Nardone G., Salvini A. (edited by) (2013), International Dictionary of Psychotherapy, Garzanti, Milan.
12. Phillips, LH, & Henry, JD (2008). Adult aging and paranoia: The role of executive functioning and social cognition. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 959-966.
13. Shermer, M. (2012). The Believing Brain: From Ghosts and Gods to Politics and Conspiracies---How We Construct Beliefs and Reinforcem as Truths. Martins Griffiths Books
14. Startup, H., Freeman, D. and Garety, PA (2007). Persecutory delusions and catastrophic worry in psychosis: Developing the understanding of delusion distress and persistence. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45(3), 523-537.
15. Watzlawick, P., Weakland, JH, & Fisch, R. (1974). Change: Principles of problem formation and problem resolution. WW Norton & Company.
16. Yung, AR and McGorry, PD (1996). The initial prodrome in psychosis: Descriptive and qualitative aspects. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30(5), 587-599.
Read also:
- Anxiety disorders: Is paranoia part of the category of psychosis?
- Anxiety disorders: Does the anxiety disorder make it easier to stay in the exhaustion of the stress mechanism?
- Anxiety disorders: Faced with pathological doubt, how can you help a person?
- Anxiety disorders: the interval of therapeutic sessions from the first session
- Eco-anxiety: From learning impermanence to taking action
- Containment, deconfinement and paradoxes. Included video. Claude de Scorraille
- COVID 19 - from fear to emotional distress, reducing the risk of post-traumatic stress disorder - Claude de Scorraille
- Overcome fear and anxiety through hypnosis and self-hypnosis. Michele Ritterman.
